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What is the nature of the world? This question, which concerns phenomenon and essence, is asked in every kind of philosophy. In the West, however, attention to and thought about phenomenon have been largely excluded from philosophy due to Parmenides' discussions of being, Plato's skepticism about the reliability of phenomenon, Aristotle's exploration of essential properties, and the demonstration of the existence of God in Christian philosophy. However, this was not the case in ancient China, in which phenomenon plays as important a role as essence in philosophy. We will start from the issue of shen (which can be translated as God, divinity, spirit, or "spiritual power" - translator's note), which, as we shall see, involves both polytheism and atheism. These are followed by the concept of yin and yang, and that of the Five Elements (wuxing), through which we could know early Chinese people's perception of nature, how the two concepts came into being and developed, and how they became central concepts in Chinese philosophy. The third part deals with ancient Chinese people's perception of difference and variability, which is also an insight in Chinese philosophy formed by long-term attention to and thinking about phenomenon. Finally, Chinese philosophy has also given some thought to the issue of essence, which comprises origin and noumenon as well as laws and rules. The important concepts involved are qi, dao, and li. Here is indeed a movement toward the general and the abstract in the thinking process.
Like any other ancient nation and civilization, China developed the idea of shen as its first concept and belief. Such belief or worship, which can be traced back to remote antiquity before the "Three Dynasties" (Xia, Shang and Zhou), namely 2070 BC, lasted throughout the ancient times of China. However, since the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC), Chinese intellectuals have shown a tendency to deny or downplay the existence of God. Such rationalism, which has been followed by both Taoism and Confucianism since that period, has made an inestimable impact on China's intellectual community. Read more
Meanwhile, conceptual forms also developed through intellectual activities and the observation of nature. In China, "yin and yang" and the "Five Elements" are among the oldest and most typical of such concepts. The concept of yin and yang mainly derived from the knowledge about "phenomena" (xiang), whereas the concept of the Five Elements mainly evolved from the knowledge about "categories" (lei). However, both concepts contain vestiges of magic, which would have a profound impact on Chinese philosophy. This is exactly one of the manifestations of the continuity of Chinese culture. Read more
The Chinese way of thinking had grown through observation even since the very beginning, which also had an impact on philosophical thinking. The vast majority of Chinese philosophers would not think about any issue in isolation from phenomena, which can be said to be an important feature of Chinese philosophy.
• The Concept of Difference or Diversity
• The Concept of Change or Changeability
Apart from their attention to phenomena, ancient Chinese philosophers also reflected upon what is more general behind phenomena. Such reflections went in two directions: 1) laws or rules; 2) origin and noumenon. Comparisons show that no philosophical thought has been specifically given to the issue of laws or rules, which has to do with different knowledge backgrounds. While Western ontology has largely developed against the background of the issue of attribute, Chinese thoughts about origin have to do with astrology or astronomy, which, as a knowledge background, has led to the understanding of laws. Moreover, the Western approach is atomistic while the Chinese one is based on yuanqi (vitality or vigor). It is true, however, that both involve the relationship between matter and spirit and that between the specific and the general.
• The Quest for Essence and Laws: Dao