Name and Substance

In the ancient Chinese philosophy, the name-substance issue was closely related to knowledge. In specific, there were two schools: One viewed that name decided substance and the other viewed that substance decided name.

Confucius was the representative of the former school. His core idea was to "correct name" first:

If terminology is not corrected, then what is said cannot be followed. If what is said cannot be followed, then work cannot be accomplished. If work cannot be accomplished, then ritual and music cannot be developed. If ritual and music cannot be developed, then criminal punishments will not be appropriate. If criminal punishments are not appropriate, the people cannot make a move. (The Analects, Zi Lu)

It must be noted that by "correcting name," Confucius meant to restore the hierarchy system in Zhou Dynasty, or to establish the present order (Substance) with the past rite (Name).

Confucius' thought was inherited by Dong Zhongshu. Dong Zhongshu said, "Therefore, all things are defined according to their names which are given by the heaven." (Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals [Chun Qiu Fan Lu], Shen Cha Ming Hao) and "To decide the curve or straight, one must use line marker. To judge the right or wrong, one must use the criterion of the sage." (Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals [Chun Qiu Fan Lu], Shen Cha Ming Hao) Name here became the criterion to judge the right or wrong. These were the views of the former school. Then, how did name form? Dong Zhongshu observed that name and idea, or moral standard and political rule were made by sages: "Name is what the sage used to define things." (Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals [Chun Qiu Fan Lu], Shen Cha Ming Hao) In fact, Dong Zhongshu expressed a view that history was created by sages. He also viewed that sages established names to convey the heaven's will: "The correct names come from the heaven that gives names to display the will." (Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals [Chun Qiu Fan Lu], Shen Cha Ming Hao) This endowed name with a mysterious color.

Mo Zi was the representative of the latter school. In Mo Zi, it was recorded:

A blind man said, "Ai means white and Oiun means black. These who can see cannot change them." Then, people combine white with black and let him to tell. The blind man cannot distinguish. I said, "The blind man cannot tell the white and black, as he distinguishes them based on the name rather than substance. (On Valuing Righteousness)

Here, Mo Zi indicated simple materialism which was inherited by his followers later. For instance.

Name is what is used to describe. Substance is what name describes. Name and substance are consistent with each other. (Explanation to The Book of Mo Zi I)

There is substance first and then the name of it. There is no name if no substance. (Explanation to The Book of Mo Zi II)

In The Canon of Mo Zi, it was summarized as "illustrating substance with name." ("Xiao Qu") The view was held by many philosophers. Guan Zi said, "To testify the substance with name and to establish the name with substance." (Guan Zi, The Nine Rules) Xun Zi said, "Name is made to denote substance." (Xun Zi, Rectifying Names) These philosophers expressed a similar view: name or idea represented reality and accorded with reality .

It should be noted that the name-substance issue concerned logic. For instance, Gongsun Long said, "Name represents the nature of substance. If the name does not denote the substance, we cannot define the substance with the name; if the substance does not exist in the name, we cannot illustrate the name with the substance." (Book of Gongsun Long, On Name and Substance) Xun Zi said, "Name the similar objects with similar names and different objects with different names. Use single word or multiple words to name objects as long as they clearly denote objects. If not, it does not harm to use common names." (Xun Zi, Rectifying Names) These philosophers dealt with the category in name or idea, for example, similar names for similar objects and different names for different objects. In Mohism, it was reduced to "to define and call with category." ("Xiao Qu") Xun Zi stressed, "This is why one must confirm the name of the substance with number and the key point for establishing the name." (Xun Zi, Rectifying Names)