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Architecture mirrors the material and aesthetic standards of a society. Classical Chinese architecture is no exception. It is interesting to see how the ancient buildings were developed, with their unique timber structures and decorative styles.
Chinese architecture is an independent art featuring wooden structures. It consists of various roof molding, upturned eaves and wings, dougong with paintings, vermilion pillars and golden roofs, ornament gates and gardening. All of these embody the maturity and artistic appeal of Chinese architecture. 7000 years ago, mortise and tenon and tongue-and-groove were used in Hemudu. The buildings of Banpo village had the division of antechamber and back rooms. Great palaces were built in Shan-gyin period. Bricks and tiles were used and the layout of Siheyuan emerged in the Western Zhou. There are even building drawings in Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods passed down. In Qin and Han, wooden building tended to be mature gradually. Complex buildings, like Epang Palace, were constructed. Temples and pagodas developed rapidly in the period of Weijin and Southern and Northern dynasties. Glass tiles used in Sui and Tang made the building more glorious. The city construction in the period of Five dynasties and Song was booming. Luxury restaurants and shops with lofts and railings were very beautiful. Many palaces and private gardens built in Ming and Qing are reserved today, which are more magnificent and stately than that of the Song Dynasty.
Chinese Architectural TypesIn ancient Chinese architecture, it is usual to find ornamental structures peripherally placed around the main body of buildings , in such a way that together they form an organic and harmonious whole. Huabiao, An ornamental column placed outside palaces, is one example.
The history of huabiao, sometimes given other names and used for specific purposes, is quite long. It is said that it originated from the 'slander post' (feibang mu) of Emperors yao and shun (who lived in prehistoric times). Emperor Shun erected 'slander posts' at important cross-roads so that his people could write down their opinions and criticism of his rule (feibang, or slander, did not have any more pejorative sense than ' pointing out one's mistakes'). This was to demonstrate his sincerity in accepting public opinion to help him govern better. However, in those days, a huabiao was but a wooden (rather than stone) post with two planks attached to it. There is also speculation that huabiao are in fact derived from the totem pillars of primitive society, which served as tokens to distinguish one clan from another.
In the Han Dynasty, huabiao were used as signposts or direction indicators in the city. From a distance, they looked like flower trees —-which explains the present name. A huabiao planted next to a mail-collecting pavilion could help the postman to tell which way to go. In addition, at the bridgeheads of the more important bridges, huabiao were often erected. The most grandiose huabiao, of course, were those built outside palaces and government building. Owing to the elaborate architecture of palaces, the ornamental huabiao were extremely finely wrought. Thus, from functional objects, huabiao developed into architectural ornament. The huabiao columns in front of Tian'anmen in Beijing were built in the Yongle years of the Ming Dynasty. Slender and carved in a sophisticated manner, they rise loftily towards the sky. The material used in these columns is white marble. The column itself is cylindrical, with dragon-in-clouds coiling around the column forming the design. At the top, horizontal sculptures shaped like flying clouds suggest that the column does reach the sky—at least symbolically. Sitting on top of the whole thing is a lively lion.
There are in fact two pairs of huabiao below the Tian'anmen Tower, One pair point north, while the other pair point south. Known respectively as the Wangjunchu (Seeing-the-Emperor-Off) and Wangjungui ( Watching-the-Emperor-Come-Back ) Columns, they were believed to be able, depending on whether the emperor was in or out, to induce him magically to go out or come back for a change, all for the good of the people. If he did not go out, he would not be aware of the grievances of the people; but if he was out all the time, there would be no one to hold court and handle government affairs. Most sovereigns simply ignored whatever purpose there was behind these stone pillars.
Some mausoleums are also guarded by huabiao (more precisely, shendaozhu) to add to the solemnity of the place and inspire awe.
Garden architecture is an improtant part of ancient architecture 
in Beijing. Beginning in the 11th centruy, the Liao Dynasty emperors had their temporary palaces built around the Western Hills. By the end of the 12th century, the Jin Dynasty emperors began to develop the scenic spot of the Fragrant Hills, which became a favourite resort for the later emperors. In the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368). Taiyechi (now Beihai Park), and Wan-shoushan (Longevity Hill) presently Qionghua Islet in Beihai Park were set as imperial garden. In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Garden of Marvelous Hill was built on the present site of the Summer Palace. The classical gardens that have been preserved were mostly built during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Examples of these are the Imperial Garden, Emperor Qianlong's Garden in the Forbidden City, Studio of Mental Tranquility, and those scattered around the northwestern suburbs including Changchunyuan (situated in the present-day Beijing University) , Yuanmingyuan, Jingmingyuan, Jingyiyuan, and Qingyiyuan.
Bejing's classical gardens were built according to their respective natural topography in various delicate shapes and ingenious layout. They are unique in style in two respects: Being vi-• 42 • vacious, appealing, natural and unrestrained, much impact of garden architecture from the southern provinces can be found. On the other hand, they are sedate and spacious, featuring the official constructions of the north.
In the old days, the classical gardens of Beijing were forbidden imperial areas, or private properties of dignitaries. Nowadays, most of them have been turned into parks and special funds have been allocated by the People's Government for the repair of these ancient garden architectures.
Mausoleum architecture accounts for a major part in ancient Chinese architecture. Mausoleums in and around Beijing include the Ming Tombs, and the Imperial East and West Mausoleums of the Qing Dynasty. The general layouts of the Ming and Qing mausoleums are roughly the same. They are built against the mountain and divided by valleys along which walls are erected. A stone monument stands in front of the gate at the main entrance. A tower housing a tablet in praise of the deceased emperor , ornamental columns and stone figures of men and animals are arranged on both sides of the Sacred Way inside the gate. A stone bridge precedes the roads leading to separate tombs. In each tomb -area, there are a number of constructions, including the Dragon and Phoenix Gate, a tablet, the Gate of Eminent Favours, the Hall of Eminent Favours, the side halls, the Soul Tower, the grave mound and subterranean constructions with the underground palace as the main part. Mausoleums of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) are magnificent, while those of the Qing Dynasty are carefully built. The Hall of Eminent Favours of Changling Tomb, the tomb of Zhu Di is similar in scale to the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City. Among the surface constructions in the Qing mausoleums, the tomb of Empress Dowager Cixi is the most fastidiously built.
Within the past few hundred years, some of the imperial mausoleums had repeatedly been plundered. After 1949 imperial mausoleums were decreed cultural relics under special preservation, and renovations were undertaken. They afford material objects for the research of the art of ancient Chinese architecture and many of them are open to the public as tourist spots.
Religious constructions can be found all over Beijing. They are those that survived the sabotage of the imperialists and warlords from 1840 to 1949. These religious constructions consist mainly of temples of Buddhism, Lamaism, Islamism, and Taoism. They differ in layouts of buildings, ways of groupings, systems of coloured paintings and themes of engravings, according to the different religious doctrines and requirements of usages. They are also different from other kinds of structures. Portraits of Buddhas, murals, engraved tablets, calligraphy, Buddhist utensils, furnishings, and Buddhist scriptures are carefully kept in those constructions. They are important cultural relics or art treasures of high value. The people's government has paid much attention to religious architecture. After the founding of New China, a special organization was set up to protect and renovate cultural relics and historical sites. In 1961, Regulations Regarding the Protection of National Key Cultural Relics was formulated. Many famous temples were listed as key cultural relic units and put under appropriate protection. In recent years, to facilitate religious activities, special funds have been allocated by the government and many temples repaired. Some temples in Beijing have been opened as tourist sites.
Old Beijing residences are featured by quadrangly courtyards. Nowadays, many inhabitants are still living in such specially shaped houses.
A quadrangle courtyard refers to an enclosure with rooms on four sides, each which is occupied by a unit of a few rooms. The four sides are linked by covered corridors. The enclosure is compact and cosy and is endowed with marked national style. In the past, one such courtyard accommodated a single household. The allocation of the rooms kept abreast with the feudal patriarchal codes; The principal rooms, usually facing the south, high-ceilinged and well-furnished, were occupied by the head of the household; the rooms along the east and west sides of the courtyard were for their off-springs; rooms for women were behind the principal rooms, and called "Xiufang" or "Xiulou" (boudoir or a woman's bedroom); the rooms facing the north were generally used as the study or the parlour. The main entrance opened at the southeastern corner of the courtyard and the lavatory at the southwestern. The rooms facing the north were divided from the principal courtyard by a whitewashed wall on which a decorated gate opened so that the inner chambers for womenfolk were alleged to be cut off from outside intrusion.
The quadrangle courtyards are divided into large, medium, and small ones in scale. When two side-courtyards are arranged on both sides of the principal one and all the courtyards are linked by covered corridors or screens, a medium-scale quadrangle is formed. If developed on both sides and in depth at the same time, the result will be a large-scale quadrangle. A large-scale quadrangle has a few layers of courtyards on the axis and side-courtyards on both sides, as well as installations like the ancestral hall, the stable, and rooms for servants. It is comprised of parlours, banquet halls, drawing rooms, studies, and bed chambers etc. Many of such top-class residences can be found in Beijing.
A dagoba differs from a pagoda in shape. While a pagoda is a multi-storied pyramidic tower, a dagoba is a single rounded structure crowned by a golden spire. The 36-metre-high White Dagoba in Beihai Park was built of bricks and stones but whitened with lime. There is no entrance, and it is said that a red emblem on the body of the building marks the opening which was sealed when the dagoba was built. It is believed' that Buddhist scriptures, lama robes and other sacred articles are stored inside.
A kang is a raised platform built with unfired bricks. It usually takes up one whole side of a room in a house of Northern China. It is so built that the flue from the cooking fire runs under it and warms it. When the kang is in a room where no cooking is done, a fire for the purpose of warming the kang can be constructed under it.